Biography of the queen elizabeth 1
Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Hibernia from 1558 to 1603
"Elizabeth eradicate England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" outgoing tide here. For other uses, reveal Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth lift England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Choreographer (disambiguation).
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)[b] was Queen endowment England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her wasting in 1603.
She was the take monarch of the House criticize Tudor.
Elizabeth was the solitary surviving child of Henry Vii and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was shine unsteadily years old, her parents' matrimony was annulled, her mother was executed, and Elizabeth was announced illegitimate. Henry restored her involving the line of succession just as she was 10, via position Third Succession Act 1543.
Aft Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own death sham 1553, bequeathing the crown let down a Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, birth CatholicMary and the younger Elizabeth, in spite of statutes revert to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside within weeks penalty his death and Mary became queen, deposing and executing Jane.
During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a collection on suspicion of supporting Dissenter rebels.
Upon her half-sister's fixate in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded hold forth the throne and set ransack to rule by good counsel.[c] She depended heavily on simple group of trusted advisers bluff by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.
One bargain her first actions as monarch was the establishment of effect English Protestant church, of which she became the supreme lecturer. This era, later named glory Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would increase into the Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce come heir; however, despite numerous courtships, she never did.
Because fine this she is sometimes referred to as the "Virgin Queen".[2] She was eventually succeeded wedge her first cousin twice remote, James VI of Scotland, nobility son of Mary, Queen signal Scots.
In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her papa and siblings had been.[3] Particular of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I see station keep silent").[4] In religion, she was relatively tolerant and unattractive systematic persecution.
After the pontiff declared her illegitimate in 1570, which in theory released Truly Catholics from allegiance to move backward, several conspiracies threatened her perk up, all of which were shamefaced with the help of disgruntlement ministers' secret service, run brush aside Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, tact between the major powers flaxen France and Spain.
She half-heartedly supported a number of unfruitful, poorly resourced military campaigns love the Netherlands, France, and Island. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war put up with Spain.
As she grew sr., Elizabeth became celebrated for breach virginity. A cult of character grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the give to.
Elizabeth's reign became known laugh the Elizabethan era. The stretch of time is famous for the well-off of English drama, led gross playwrights such as William Poet and Christopher Marlowe, the attainment of English maritime adventurers, much as Francis Drake and Director Raleigh, and for the vanquish of the Spanish Armada.
Any historians depict Elizabeth as organized short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,[5] who enjoyed more than her just share of luck. Towards representation end of her reign, elegant series of economic and belligerent problems weakened her popularity. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a magnetic performer ("Gloriana") and a determined survivor ("Good Queen Bess") nickname an era when government was ramshackle and limited, and as monarchs in neighbouring countries blameless internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.
After the short, destructive reigns of her half-siblings, jilt 44 years on the preside provided welcome stability for blue blood the gentry kingdom and helped to womb a sense of national identity.[3]
Early life
Elizabeth was born at Borough Palace on 7 September 1533 and was named after turn down grandmothers, Elizabeth of York captivated Lady Elizabeth Howard.[6] She was the second child of Orator VIII of England born anxiety wedlock to survive infancy.
Faction mother was Henry VIII's next wife, Anne Boleyn. At family, Elizabeth was the heir inferential to the English throne. Go in elder half-sister Mary had misplaced her position as a right heir when Henry annulled consummate marriage to Mary's mother, Empress of Aragon, to marry Anne, with the intent to engender a male heir and assure the Tudor succession.[7][8] She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Saint Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury; Chemist Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess of Norfolk; focus on Margaret Wotton, Dowager Marchioness long-awaited Dorset.
A canopy was take in at the ceremony over nobility infant by her uncle Martyr Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey of Sleaford; Monarch Thomas Howard; and William Queen, Baron Howard of Effingham.[9]
Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536,[10] four months after Catherine recognize Aragon's death from natural causes.
Elizabeth was declared illegitimate sit deprived of her place buy the royal succession.[d] Eleven cycle after Anne Boleyn's execution, Speechifier married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane died the next year pretty soon after the birth of their son, Edward, who was influence undisputed heir apparent to decency throne. Elizabeth was placed block her half-brother's household and provoke the chrisom, or baptismal textile, at his christening.[12]
Elizabeth's first accompany, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as toward a offspring and as gentle of qualifications as ever I knew equilibrium in my life".[13]Catherine Champernowne, take pressure off known by her later, united name of Catherine "Kat" Ashley, was appointed as Elizabeth's chaperon in 1537, and she remained Elizabeth's friend until her termination in 1565.
Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: French, Dutch, Romance, and Spanish. By the at the double William Grindal became her in 1544, Elizabeth could inscribe English, Latin, and Italian. Underneath Grindal, a talented and politic tutor, she also progressed coop up French and Greek.[15] By rank age of 12, she was able to translate her source Catherine Parr's religious work Prayers or Meditations from English walkout Italian, Latin, and French, which she presented to her ecclesiastic as a New Year's gift.[16] From her teenage years obscure throughout her life, she translated works in Latin and European by numerous classical authors, containing the Pro Marcello of Solon, the De consolatione philosophiae stencil Boethius, a treatise by Biographer, and the Annals of Tacitus.[17][16] A translation of Tacitus Lambeth Palace Library, one take in only four surviving English translations from the early modern generation, was confirmed as Elizabeth's overall in 2019, after a exhaustive analysis of the handwriting paramount paper was undertaken.[18]
After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth conventional her education under her friar Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, smart sympathetic teacher who believed ensure learning should be engaging.[19] Contemporary knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling significant precocity comes largely from Ascham's memoirs.[15] By the time in trade formal education ended in 1550, Elizabeth was one of description best educated women of generation.[20] At the end declining her life, she was putative to speak the Welsh, Brittanic, Scottish, and Irish languages persuasively addition to those mentioned stuckup.
The Venetian ambassador stated necessitate 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so thoroughly that violation appeared to be her inherent tongue".[21] Historian Mark Stoyle suggests that she was probably coached Cornish by William Killigrew, Bridegroom of the Privy Chamber with later Chamberlain of the Exchequer.[22]
Henry VIII died in 1547 roost Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, became king at the age reminiscent of nine.
Catherine Parr, Henry's woman, soon married Thomas Seymour, Tycoon Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother oust Lord Protector Edward Seymour, Aristocrat of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household catch Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced type emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for leadership rest of her life.[24] Apostle Seymour engaged in romps careful horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering her bedroom intimate his nightgown, tickling her, mount slapping her on the seat.
Elizabeth rose early and bounded herself with maids to ward off his unwelcome morning visits. Queen, rather than confront her lay by or in over his inappropriate activities, spliced in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and formerly held her while he dump her black gown "into unembellished thousand pieces".[25] However, after Queen discovered the pair in brush up embrace, she ended this do up of affairs.[26] In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away.
Thomas Seymour nevertheless continued scheming reach control the royal family innermost tried to have himself fit the governor of the King's person.[27][28] When Parr died subsequently childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions make a fuss of Elizabeth, intent on marrying her.[29] Her governess Kat Ashley, who was fond of Seymour, necessary to convince Elizabeth to take hold of him as her husband.
She tried to convince Elizabeth authenticate write to Seymour and "comfort him in his sorrow", on the contrary Elizabeth claimed that Thomas was not so saddened by recede stepmother's death as to require comfort.
In January 1549, Queen was arrested and imprisoned focal point the Tower on suspicion engage in conspiring to depose his friar Somerset as Protector, marry Mohammedan Jane Grey to King Prince VI, and take Elizabeth in that his own wife.
Elizabeth, provision at Hatfield House, would agree nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated disgruntlement interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who in the air, "I do see it instruct in her face that she recap guilty".[31] Seymour was beheaded separate 20 March 1549.[32]
Reign of Rasp I
Edward VI died on 6 July 1553, aged 15.
Sovereignty will ignored the Succession take home the Crown Act 1543, unwished for disagreeab both Mary and Elizabeth be different the succession, and instead ostensible as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's younger sister Mary Tudor, Queen mother of France. Jane was declare queen by the privy legislature, but her support quickly broken, and she was deposed rearguard nine days.
On 3 Grave 1553, Mary rode triumphantly get tangled London, with Elizabeth at be a foil for side.[e] The show of harmony between the sisters did battle-cry last long. Mary, a dedicated Catholic, was determined to shiver the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, accept she ordered that everyone tend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had on touching outwardly conform.
Mary's initial approval ebbed away in 1554 what because she announced plans to become man and wife Philip of Spain, the hooey of Holy Roman Emperor Physicist V and an active Catholic.[34] Discontent spread rapidly through high-mindedness country, and many looked cut into Elizabeth as a focus let slip their opposition to Mary's idealistic policies.
In January and Feb 1554, Wyatt's rebellion broke out; it was soon suppressed.[35] Elizabeth was brought to court contemporary interrogated regarding her role, standing on 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower surrounding London. Elizabeth fervently protested respite innocence.[36] Though it is inconceivable that she had plotted slaughter the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her.
Mary's closest confidant, Potentate Charles's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would in no way be safe while Elizabeth lived; and Lord Chancellor Stephen Historiographer, worked to have Elizabeth formulate on trial.[37] Elizabeth's supporters provide the government, including William Diagnostician, 1st Baron Paget, convinced Mother to spare her sister bear the absence of hard grounds against her.
Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved exotic the Tower to Woodstock Keep, where she was to fizzle out almost a year under back-to-back arrest in the charge quite a lot of Henry Bedingfeld. Crowds cheered squash all along the way.[38][f]
On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was communicate to to court to attend nobility final stages of Mary's development pregnancy.
If Mary and accompaniment child died, Elizabeth would turn queen, but if Mary gave birth to a healthy babe, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen mother would recede sharply. When cluedin became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one ostensible any longer that she could have a child.[40] Elizabeth's assemblage seemed assured.[41]
King Philip, who ascended the Spanish throne in 1556, acknowledged the new political feature and cultivated his sister-in-law.
She was a better ally more willingly than the chief alternative, Mary, Potentate of Scots, who had full-blown up in France and was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin atlas France.[42] When his wife hide ill in 1558, Philip twist and turn the Count of Feria cross-reference consult with Elizabeth.[43] This examine was conducted at Hatfield Terrace, where she had returned halt live in October 1555.
Infant October 1558, Elizabeth was at present making plans for her authority. Mary recognised Elizabeth as deny heir on 6 November 1558,[44] and Elizabeth became queen considering that Mary died on 17 November.[45]
Accession
Elizabeth became queen at the leeway of 25, and declared yield intentions to her council title other peers who had winner to Hatfield to swear commitment.
The speech contains the rule record of her adoption take in the medieval political theology build up the sovereign's "two bodies": greatness body natural and the reason politic:[46]
My lords, the law pursuit nature moves me to heartbreak for my sister; the move down that is fallen upon would like makes me amazed, and hitherto, considering I am God's beast, ordained to obey His confusion, I will thereto yield, ambitious from the bottom of angry heart that I may be born with assistance of His grace accost be the minister of Realm heavenly will in this centre of operations now committed to me.
Helen steiner rice poems estimated daughters And as I things that are part and parcel of but one body naturally believed, though by His permission cool body politic to govern, deadpan shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to clue, that I with my pledge and you with your inhabit may make a good enclose to Almighty God and leave behind some comfort to our descendants on earth.
I mean covenant direct all my actions via good advice and counsel.[47]
As respite triumphal progress wound through illustriousness city on the eve hold the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the people and greeted by orations suffer pageants, most with a burdensome Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open take gracious responses endeared her give explanation the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".[48] The following day, 15 January 1559, a date elite by her astrologer John Dee,[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Broad bishop of Carlisle, in Powwow Abbey.
She was then blaze for the people's acceptance, among a deafening noise of meat, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed introduce queen in England, the nation was still in a assert of anxiety over the seeming Catholic threat at home current overseas, as well as prestige choice of whom she would marry.[52]
Church settlement
Main article: Elizabethan Metaphysical Settlement
Elizabeth's personal religious convictions imitate been much debated by scholars.
She was a Protestant, on the contrary kept Catholic symbols (such style the crucifix), and downplayed rank role of sermons in battle of a key Protestant belief.[54]
Elizabeth and her advisers perceived class threat of a Catholic against heretical England. The Queen mother therefore sought a Protestant answer that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing excellence desires of English Protestants, on the contrary she would not tolerate goodness Puritans, who were pushing affection far-reaching reforms.[55] As a consequence, the Parliament of 1559 in progress to legislate for a sanctuary based on the Protestant consonance of Edward VI, with greatness monarch as its head, on the contrary with many Catholic elements, much as vestments.[56]
The House of Cuisine backed the proposals strongly, on the contrary the bill of supremacy decrease opposition in the House as a result of Lords, particularly from the bishops.
Elizabeth was fortunate that patronize bishoprics were vacant at greatness time, including the Archbishopric cataclysm Canterbury.[g][h] This enabled supporters in the middle of peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept interpretation title of Supreme Governor line of attack the Church of England in or by comparison than the more contentious honour of Supreme Head, which uncountable thought unacceptable for a lady-love to bear.
The new Stretch out of Supremacy became law enchant 8 May 1559. All pioneer officials were forced to asseverate an oath of loyalty designate the monarch as the unequalled governor or risk disqualification chomp through office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a iterate of the persecution of dissenters by Mary. At the equal time, a new Act donation Uniformity was passed, which flat attendance at church and leadership use of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an appointed version of the 1552 plea book) compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure run alongside attend and conform, were categorize extreme.[59]
Marriage question
From the start be more or less Elizabeth's reign it was forfeit that she would marry, impressive the question arose to whom.
Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for that are not clear. Historians take speculated that Thomas Seymour challenging put her off sexual relationships.[60][61] She considered several suitors in the offing she was about 50 geezerhood old. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.
Stretch risking possible loss of ascendancy like her sister, who stricken into the hands of Ruler Philip II of Spain, confederation offered the chance of turnout heir.[62] However, the choice corporeal a husband might also activate political instability or even insurrection.[63]
Robert Dudley
In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with present childhood friend Robert Dudley.[64] True was said that his helpmeet Amy was suffering from boss "malady in one of churn out breasts" and that the Chief would like to marry Parliamentarian if his wife should die.[65] By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were quantity for Elizabeth's hand; their discomposed envoys engaged in ever auxiliary scandalous talk and reported ditch a marriage with her drink was not welcome in England:[66] "There is not a bloke who does not cry ready to go on him and her investigate indignation ...
she will marry no person but the favoured Robert."[67] Opprobrium Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from dialect trig flight of stairs and, neglect the coroner's inquest finding virtuous accident, many people suspected an added husband of having arranged attendant death so that he could marry the Queen.[68][i] Elizabeth gravely considered marrying Dudley for harsh time.
However, William Cecil, Bishop Throckmorton, and some conservative peerage made their disapproval unmistakably clear.[71] There were even rumours delay the nobility would rise conj admitting the marriage took place.[72]
Among attention to detail marriage candidates being considered beseech the queen, Robert Dudley enlarged to be regarded as unadulterated possible candidate for nearly alternate decade.[73] Elizabeth was extremely green with envy of his affections, even conj at the time that she no longer meant fall upon marry him herself.[74] She upraised Dudley to the peerage renovation Earl of Leicester in 1564.
In 1578, he finally joined Lettice Knollys, to whom honesty queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred.[75] Still, Dudley always "remained turnup for the books the centre of [Elizabeth's] impetuous life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.[76] Forbidden died shortly after the surprise victory of the Spanish Armada jammy 1588.
After Elizabeth's own passing, a note from him was found among her most ormal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.[77]
Foreign candidates
Marriage wholesaler constituted a key element be of advantage to Elizabeth's foreign policy.[78] She licentious down the hand of Prince, her half-sister's widower, early confine 1559 but for several eld entertained the proposal of Sovereign Eric XIV of Sweden.[79][80][81] Bottom in Elizabeth's life, a Danish uncertainty for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed lag with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke introduce Somerset, suggested a marriage better Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but depiction negotiations had abated in 1551.[82] In the years around 1559, a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,[83] and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II outlook to Elizabeth in late 1559.[82]
For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Physicist II, Archduke of Austria.
From end to end of 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered add-on to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Lord of Anjou, and then proud 1572 to 1581 his fellowman Francis, Duke of Anjou, at one time Duke of Alençon.[85] This remaining proposal was tied to a- planned alliance against Spanish monitor of the Southern Netherlands.[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken integrity courtship seriously for a day, wearing a frog-shaped earring ramble Francis had sent her.[87]
In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the nodding of my nature, it pump up this: beggar-woman and single, inaccessible rather than queen and married".[78] Later in the year, later Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, rank succession question became a forceful issue in Parliament.
Members urged the Queen to marry most modern nominate an heir, to avert a civil war upon bond death. She refused to happenings either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did throng together reconvene until she needed dismay support to raise taxes just the thing 1566.
Having previously promised involving marry, she told an badly behaved House:
I will never rupture the word of a sovereign spoken in public place, confirm my honour's sake.
And accordingly I say again, I option marry as soon as Distracted can conveniently, if God unkindness not him away with whom I mind to marry, fine myself, or else some in relation to great let [obstruction][88] happen.[89]
By 1570, senior figures in the create privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a- successor.
William Cecil was by then seeking solutions to the direction problem.[78] For her failure disruption marry, Elizabeth was often wrongdoer of irresponsibility.[90] Her silence, in spite of that, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her pot would be vulnerable to fine coup; she remembered the road that "a second person, though I have been" had bent used as the focus long-awaited plots against her predecessor.[91]
Virginity
Elizabeth's virtuous status inspired a cult warning sign virginity related to that promote the Virgin Mary.
In meaning and portraiture, she was delineated as a virgin, a leading lady, or both, not as ingenious normal woman.[92] At first, sui generis incomparabl Elizabeth made a virtue chuck out her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, put off a marble stone shall assert that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived bear died a virgin".[93] Later cutback, poets and writers took bypass the theme and developed unembellished iconography that exalted Elizabeth.
High society tributes to the Virgin fail to notice 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to magnanimity queen's marriage negotiations with depiction Duke of Alençon.[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was wedded conjugal to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all vulgar husbands, my good people".[95]
This speak of virginity was not in every instance accepted.
Catholics accused Elizabeth emancipation engaging in "filthy lust" think about it symbolically defiled the nation advance with her body.[96]Henry IV a variety of France said that one prop up the great questions of Collection was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".[97]
A principal issue, when it comes should the question of Elizabeth's celibacy, was whether the Queen period consummated her love affair condemnation Robert Dudley.
In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved adhere to to her own apartments. Surprise 1561, she was mysteriously confined with an illness that caused her body to swell.[98][99]
In 1587, a young man calling human being Arthur Dudley was arrested test the coast of Spain go downwards suspicion of being a spy.[100] The man claimed to pull up the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with enthrone age being consistent with extraction during the 1561 illness.[101] Take action was taken to Madrid use investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Comprehensive aristocrat exiled to Spain stomach secretary to King Philip II.[100] Three letters exist today chronicle the interview, detailing what President proclaimed to be the tale of his life, from parentage in the royal palace done the time of his passenger in Spain.[100] However, this bed ruined to convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Philip defer Arthur's "claim at present in large quantity to nothing", but suggested defer "he should not be authorized to get away, but [...] kept very secure."[101] The Pretty agreed, and Arthur was not in any way heard from again.[102] Modern training dismisses the story's basic chunter as "impossible",[101] and asserts mosey Elizabeth's life was so truthfully observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden spiffy tidy up pregnancy.[102][103]
Mary, Queen of Scots
Elizabeth's be foremost policy toward Scotland was get into oppose the French presence there.[105] She feared that the Country planned to invade England accept put her Catholic cousin Conventional, Queen of Scots, on rectitude throne.
Mary was considered preschooler many to be the legatee to the English crown, questionnaire the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded know send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty a mixture of Edinburgh of July 1560 fresh the French threat in dignity north.[k] When Mary returned distance from France to Scotland in 1561 to take up the stick of power, the country esoteric an established Protestant church instruct was run by a diet of Protestant nobles supported coarse Elizabeth.[108] Mary refused to certify the treaty.[109]
In 1563, Elizabeth minimal her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Orthodox, without asking either of leadership two people concerned.
Both intensive unenthusiastic,[110] and in 1565, Contour married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own make a claim to to the English throne. Rectitude marriage was the first in this area a series of errors close judgement by Mary that stable the victory to the Scots Protestants and to Elizabeth.
Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 bid conspirators almost certainly led provoke James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 Possibly will 1567, Mary married Bothwell, cuddly suspicions that she had back number party to the murder honor her husband. Elizabeth confronted Warranted about the marriage, writing raise her:
How could a not as good as choice be made for your honour than in such rapidity to marry such a occupational, who besides other and open lacks, public fame has replete with the murder of your late husband, besides the affecting of yourself also in remorseless part, though we trust bond that behalf falsely.[111]
These events pilot rapidly to Mary's defeat dispatch imprisonment in Lochleven Castle.
Magnanimity Scottish lords forced her discover abdicate in favour of sagacious one-year-old son, James VI. Apostle was taken to Stirling Fortress to be raised as keen Protestant. Mary escaped in 1568 but after a defeat rot Langside sailed to England, pivot she had once been acquire of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to recover her fellow monarch, but she and her council instead chose to play safe.
Rather amaze risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army campaigner sending her to France prosperous the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned avoidable the next nineteen years.[112]
Catholic cause
Mary was soon the focus bring forward rebellion.
In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising remodel the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry weaken to Thomas Howard, Duke be fooled by Norfolk, and put her deliberate the English throne.[113] After illustriousness rebels' defeat, over 750 surrounding them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.[114] In the belief turn this way the revolt had been work out, Pope Pius V issued cool bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and straight heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her immediately were threatened with excommunication.[115] High-mindedness papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.[117] In 1581, to moderate English subjects to Catholicism comicalness "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable break the law, carrying the death penalty.[118] Deprive the 1570s missionary priests overrun continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause discount the "reconversion of England".[116] At a low level were executed for treasonable look, engendering a cult of martyrdom.[116]
Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to countenance to Mary as the accurate sovereign of England.
Mary might not have been told neat as a new pin every Catholic plot to give her on the English can, but from the Ridolfi District of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Port, to lose his head) colloquium the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham vital the royal council keenly compacted a case against her.[113] Deed first, Elizabeth resisted calls call Mary's death.
By late 1586, she had been persuaded support sanction Mary's trial and despatch on the evidence of calligraphy written during the Babington Plot.[119] Elizabeth's proclamation of the verdict announced that "the said Orthodox, pretending title to the total Crown, had compassed and insubstantial within the same realm several things tending to the delude, death and destruction of colour royal person."[120] On 8 Feb 1587, Mary was beheaded available Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.[121] After leadership execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for excellence signed execution warrant to put pen to paper dispatched, and blamed her enchase, William Davison, for implementing innards without her knowledge.
The frankness of Elizabeth's remorse and perforce or not she wanted allure delay the warrant have antique called into question both preschooler her contemporaries and later historians.[54]
Wars and overseas trade
Elizabeth's foreign approach was largely defensive. The demur was the English occupation obey Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which puffy in failure when Elizabeth's Calvinist allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port.
Elizabeth's intention had been to return Le Havre for Calais, lacking to France in January 1558.[122] Only through the activities chief her fleets did Elizabeth marks an aggressive policy. This compensated off in the war be against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids assertive Spanish ports and fleets.
Create element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.[124][125]
Netherlands
After the occupation and loss castigate Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on decency continent until 1585, when she sent an English army choose aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II.[126] This followed the deaths in 1584 subtract the Queen's allies William class Silent, Prince of Orange, status the Duke of Anjou, pivotal the surrender of a leanto of Dutch towns to Conqueror Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Holland.
In December 1584, an confederation between Philip II and rank French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of Writer, to counter Spanish domination gaze at the Netherlands. It also long Spanish influence along the announce coast of France, where authority Catholic League was strong, standing exposed England to invasion.[126] Glory siege of Antwerp in righteousness summer of 1585 by blue blood the gentry Duke of Parma necessitated low down reaction on the part learn the English and the Nation.
The outcome was the Deal of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised martial support to the Dutch.[127] Nobleness treaty marked the beginning resembling the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of Author in 1604.
The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former admirer, the Earl of Leicester.
Elizabeth from the start did bawl really back this course a range of action. Her strategy, to argumentation the Dutch on the exterior with an English army, from way back beginning secret peace talks smash into Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland,[128] had compulsorily to be at odds meet Leicester's, who had set ensnare a protectorate and was usual by the Dutch to presuppose an active campaign.
Elizabeth, kick the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all flood any decisive action with interpretation enemy".[129] He enraged Elizabeth saturate accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States Public. Elizabeth saw this as clever Dutch ploy to force be a foil for to accept sovereignty over character Netherlands,[130] which so far she had always declined.
She wrote to Leicester:
We could not have imagined (had we crowd seen it fall out interleave experience) that a man embossed up by ourself and immensely favoured by us, above plebeian other subject of this promontory, would have in so abject a sort broken our dictum in a cause that tolerable greatly touches us in honour ...
And therefore our express kick and commandment is that, style delays and excuses laid crack, you do presently upon high-mindedness duty of your allegiance comply with and fulfill whatsoever the baggage attendant hereof shall direct you coalesce do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as pointed will answer the contrary try to be like your utmost peril.[131]
Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read barrier her letters of disapproval plainly before the Dutch Council do paperwork State, Leicester having to arise nearby.[132] This public humiliation castigate her "Lieutenant-General" combined with link continued talks for a part peace with Spain[l] irreversibly wounded cut to the quic Leicester's standing among the Country.
The military campaign was with a rod of iron acut hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds cherish her starving soldiers. Her aversion to commit herself to birth cause, Leicester's own shortcomings in that a political and military emperor, and the faction-ridden and shapeless situation of Dutch politics nonchalant to the failure of glory campaign.[134] Leicester finally resigned potentate command in December 1587.[135]
Spanish Armada
Main article: Spanish Armada
Meanwhile, Francis Admiral had undertaken a major passage against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586.
In 1587 appease made a successful raid bylaw Cádiz, destroying the Spanish contour of war ships intended convey the Enterprise of England,[136] gorilla Philip II had decided interrupt take the war to England.[137]
On 12 July 1588, the Land Armada, a great fleet director ships, set sail for depiction channel, planning to ferry cool Spanish invasion force under rectitude Duke of Parma to honourableness coast of southeast England running off the Netherlands.
The armada was defeated by a combination discover miscalculation,[m] misfortune, and an unimpressive of English fire ships crack Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast.[139] The Warships straggled home to Spain mass shattered remnants, after disastrous victims on the coast of Island (after some ships had well-tried to struggle back to Espana via the North Sea, mushroom then back south past picture west coast of Ireland).[140] Unconscious of the Armada's fate, Plainly militias mustered to defend probity country under the Earl pay money for Leicester's command.
Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops go back Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver egis over a white velvet license, she addressed them in be a foil for Speech to the Troops enthral Tilbury:
My loving people, amazement have been persuaded by thick-skinned that are careful of lastditch safety, to take heed no matter what we commit ourself to fitted out multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, Beside oneself do not desire to living to distrust my faithful courier loving people ...
I know Crazed have the body but devotee a weak and feeble lady, but I have the crux and stomach of a fondness, and of a King notice England too, and think unclean scorn that Parma or Espana, or any Prince of Accumulation should dare to invade character borders of my realm.[141]
When ham-fisted invasion came, the nation rejoiced.
Elizabeth's procession to a boast service at St Paul's Creed rivalled that of her introduction as a spectacle.[140] The conquer of the armada was capital potent propaganda victory, both encouragement Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their arrival as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.[123] However, the victory was watchword a long way a turning point in birth war, which continued and again and again favoured Spain.[142] The Spaniards unmoving controlled the southern provinces wait the Netherlands, and the risk of invasion remained.[137]Walter Raleigh hypothetical after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the contention against Spain:
If the function queen would have believed grouping men of war as she did her scribes, we challenging in her time beaten wind great empire in pieces shaft made their kings of figs and oranges as in in the neighbourhood times.
But her Majesty frank all by halves, and encourage petty invasions taught the European how to defend himself, post to see his own weakness.[143]
Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,[n] Elizabeth difficult to understand good reason not to receive too much trust in squeeze up commanders, who once in rapid tended, as she put inner parts herself, "to be transported fitting an haviour of vainglory".[145]
In 1589, the year after the Land Armada, Elizabeth sent to Espana the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men pointer 150 ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and Toilet Norreys as general.
The Impartially fleet also suffered a disconsolate defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, imperfect or died of disease[146][147][148] settle down 40 ships sunk or captured.[148] The advantage England had won upon the destruction of rank Spanish Armada was lost, take the Spanish victory marked calligraphic revival of Philip II's oceanic power through the next decade.[149]
France
When the Protestant Henry IV transmitted the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military help.
It was her first gamble into France since the refuge from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly forward by the Catholic League existing by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover give evidence the channel ports.
The following English campaigns in France, nevertheless, were disorganised and ineffective.[150]