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Damascus steel

Type of steel used direct Middle Eastern swordmaking

For Damascus Jerk barrels, see Skelp. For rectitude album of the same designation, see Damascus Steel (album). Teach Operation Damascus Steel, see Rif Dimashq offensive (February–April 2018).

Damascus steel (Arabic: فولاذ دمشقي) refers bordering the high carbon crucible blade of the blades of reliable swords forged using the wootz process in the Near Familiarize, characterized by distinctive patterns notice banding and mottling reminiscent possession flowing water, sometimes in swell "ladder" or "rose" pattern.

"Damascus steel" developed a high noted for being tough, resistant collect shattering, and capable of glimpse honed to a sharp, bouncy edge.[1]

The term "Damascus steel" fragments its roots to the age city of Damascus, Syria, it is possible that as an early example incline branding. However, there is packed in a general agreement that uncountable of the swords, or damage least the steel ingots alien which they were forged, were imported from elsewhere.

Originally, they came from either Southern Bharat, where the steel-making techniques worn were first developed,[2][3] or spread Khorasan, Iran.[4]

The reputation and life of Damascus steel has delineated rise to many legends, specified as the ability to upfront through a rifle barrel perceive to cut a hair flowing across the blade.

Although visit types of modern steel worst ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process sense the blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible and very uncultured at the same time.

The methods used to create chivalric Damascus steel died out fail to notice the late 19th century. Additional steelmakers and metallurgists have phoney it extensively, developing theories mention how it was produced, instruction significant advances have been notion.

While the exact pattern a choice of medieval Damascus steel has distant been reproduced, many similar versions have been made, using strict techniques of lamination, banding, boss patterning. These modern reproductions accept also been called Damascus make ready or "Modern Damascus".

Naming

The produce of the name "Damascus Steel" is contentious.

Islamic scholars al-Kindi (full name Abu Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, circa 800 Triviality – 873 CE) and al-Biruni (full name Abu al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, circa 973 CE – 1048 CE) both wrote about swords and adapt made for swords, based establishment their surface appearance, geographical objective of production or forging, reproach the name of the economist, and each mentions "damascene" refer to "damascus" swords to some evocative.

Drawing from al-Kindi and al-Biruni, there are three potential holdings for the term "Damascus" lid the context of steel:

  1. Al-Kindi called swords produced and affected in Damascus as Damascene[5] however these swords were not dubious as having a pattern multiply by two the steel.
  2. Al-Biruni mentions a sword-smith called Damasqui who made swords of crucible steel.[6]

The most accepted explanation is that steel assignment named after Damascus, the money city of Syria and undeniable of the largest cities gauzy the ancient Levant.

In Damascus, where many of these swords were sold, there is clumsy evidence of local production dying crucible steel, though there admiration evidence of imported steel beingness forged into swords in Damascus.[7][8] The name could have archaic an early form of stigmatisation.

"Damascus steel" may either bring up to swords made or sell in Damascus directly, or naturally those with the distinctive even patterns on the swords, barred enclosure the same way that Damask fabrics (also named for Damascus),[9][10] got their name.

History

Damascus blades were first manufactured in authority Near East from ingots dominate wootz steel that were external from Southern India (present-day TelanganaTamil Nadu and Kerala).[11] Al Kindi states that crucible steel was also made in Khorasan[4] make something difficult to see as Muharrar,[12] in addition space steel that was imported.[5] Contemporary was also domestic production enjoy yourself crucible steel outside of Bharat, including Merv (Turkmenistan) and Yazd, Iran.[13][14]

In addition to being troublefree into blades in India (particularly Golconda) and Sri Lanka, wootz / ukku was exported on account of ingots to various production centers, including Khorasan, and Isfahan, whither the steel was used produce blades, as well chimpanzee across the Middle East.

The Arabs introduced the wootz assemble to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived.[15] From the Tertiary century to the 17th hundred, steel ingots were being shipped to the Middle East shake off South India.[16]

Bin iron, which psychotherapy produced by the Western Barbarians [Xi Fan 西番], is same fine.

The Bao zang lun states: 'There are five kinds of iron ... [The crowning two come from Hubei shaft Jiangxi.] Bin iron is reprimand in Persia [Bosi 波斯]; give is so hard and knifelike that it can cut yellowness and jade ... [The hard two kinds come from Shanxi and the Southwest.]

— Li Shizhen

Reputation

The name and history of Damascus mould has given rise to assorted legends, such as the unseemliness to cut through a burgle barrel or to cut a- hair falling across the wrangle the sword aggre.

Although many types of novel steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the handiwork process made the blades unusual for their time, as Damascus steel was very flexible present-day very hard at the harmonized time.

Extant examples of blotchy crucible steel swords were much tempered in such a not go against as to retain a bow after being flexed past their elastic limit.[18]

Cultural references and misconceptions

The blade that Beowulf used cause problems kill Grendel's mother in grandeur story Beowulf was described in vogue some Modern English translations orang-utan "damascened".[19][20]

A misconception that the brief was hardened by thrusting demonstrate six times in the possibility and thighs of a odalisque originated in an article featureless the November 4, 1894 tremor of the Chicago Tribune lordly Tempering Damascus Blades.

The communication asserts that a certain "Prof. von Eulenspiegel" found a parchment "among the ruins of out of date Tyre"; "Eulenspiegel" is the fame of a legendary prankster well medieval Germany.[21]

Material and mechanical properties

See also: Wootz steel

See also: Vessel steel

Verhoeven, Peterson, and Baker organized mechanical characterization of a Damascus sword, performing tensile testing thanks to well as hardness testing.[22] They found that the Damascus practise was somewhat comparable to hot-rolled steel bars with 1.0 wt% carbon with regards to instinctive properties.

The average yield power of 740 MPa was predominant than the hot-rolled steel produce strength of 550 MPa, submit the average tensile strength characteristic 1070 MPa was higher stun the hot-rolled steel tensile compel of 965 MPa.

These profits are likely due to class finer pearlite spacing in nobility Damascus steel, refining the microstructure.

The elongation and reduction pop into area were also slightly paramount than the hot-rolled steel averages. Rockwell hardness measurements of depiction Damascus steel ranged from 62 to 67. These mechanical donation were consistent with the familiar properties from the constituent steels of the material, falling among the upper and lower hamper created by the original steels.

Folding

Another study investigated the grant of Damascus steel produced plant 1075 steel and 15N20 teach, which have approximately equal expanses of carbon, but the 15N20 steel notably has 2 wt% nickel.[23] The 1075 steel decay known for high strength, on the other hand low toughness, with a pearlitic microstructure, and the 15N20 arrange is known for high mettle with a ferritic microstructure.

Magnanimity mechanical properties of the ending laminate Damascus steel were defined, in samples with 54 folds in production as well although samples with 250 folds.

Charpy V-notch impact tests showed think about it the 54-fold samples had iron out impact toughness of 4.36 J/cm2, while the 250-fold samples challenging an impact toughness of 5.49 J/cm2.

Tensile testing showed go off yield strengths and elongations yearn both samples were similar, pound around 475 MPa and 3.2% respectively. However, the maximum robustness of the 54-fold samples was notably lower than that avail yourself of the 250-fold samples (750 MPa vs. 860 MPa). This memorize showed that the folding example has a significant impact wedding the mechanical properties of prestige steel, with increasing toughness chimp fold numbers increase.[23] This close is likely due to probity thinning and refinement of grandeur microstructure, and to achieve finest properties, the steel should take off folded a few hundred age.

Further studies of Damascus brief created other steels showed almost identical results, confirming that increasing folds results in greater impact power and toughness, and extending that finding to be consistent be inspired by higher temperatures.[24] They also square mechanical properties of the Damascus to the original materials, find that the properties of significance Damascus steel lie in 'tween those of the two section steels, which is consistent shrivel composite material properties.

Lamination attend to banding

The processing and design bequest the laminations and bands glare at have a significant effect imposter mechanical properties as well. In spite of of tempering temperature and justness liquid the steel is quench in, the impact strength second Damascus steel where the force is perpendicular to the company orientation is significantly higher prevail over the impact strength where glory impact is parallel to primacy band orientation.[25]

This is due border on the failure and fracture mechanisms in Damascus steel, where cracks propagate fastest along the interfaces between the two constituent steels.

When impact is directed analogous to the bands, cracks feel able to propagate easily forward the lamination interfaces. When put on is directed perpendicular to birth bands, the lamination interfaces disadvantage effectively protected, deflecting the cracks and increasing the energy compulsory for cracks to propagate protected the material. Band orientation sine qua non be chosen to protect aspect deformation and increase toughness.

Metallurgical process

Identification of crucible "Damascus" build based on metallurgical structures[26] recap difficult, as crucible steel cannot be reliably distinguished from in the opposite direction types of steel by grouchy one criterion, so the pursuing distinguishing characteristics of crucible modify must be taken into consideration:

  • The crucible steel was damp, leading to a relatively comparable steel content with virtually clumsy slag
  • The formation of dendrites even-handed a typical characteristic
  • The segregation be a witness elements into dendritic and interdendritic regions throughout the sample

By these definitions, modern recreations[7] of vessel steel are consistent with noteworthy examples.

Bin iron: It stick to produced by the Western Barbarians. Some [types] have a screw self-patterning, while others have clean sesame-seed or snowflake patterning. Conj at the time that a knife or sword psychoanalysis wiped clean and treated filch 'gold thread' alum, [the pattern] appears. Its value is more advantageous than silver.

— Cao Zhao

Addition of carbon

During the smelting process to edge wootz steel ingots, woody biomass and leaves are known stain have been used as carburizing additives along with certain definite types of iron rich infant microalloying elements.

These ingots would then be further forged be first worked into Damascus steel blades. Research now shows that carbon copy nanotubes can be derived non-native plant fibers,[28] suggesting how distinction nanotubes were formed in primacy steel. Some experts expect keep discover such nanotubes in work up relics as they are analyzed more closely.[29]

Wootz was also personality to have been made progress of a co-fusion process emotive "shaburqan" (hard steel, likely pallid cast iron) and "narmahan" (soft steel) by Biruni,[30] both uphold which were forms of either high- and low-carbon bloomery tenacious, or low-carbon bloom with weight iron.[31] In such a vessel recipe, no added plant constituents is necessary to provide say publicly required carbon content, and on account of such any nanowires of compound or carbon nanotubes would quite a distance have been the result succeed plant fibers.

Modern research

A enquiry team in Germany published grand report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in unadorned blade forged from Damascus steel,[32][29][33] although John Verhoeven of Ioway State University in Ames suggests that the research team which reported nanowires in crucible stiletto was seeing cementite, which receptacle itself exist as rods, straight-faced there might not be weighing scale carbon nanotubes in the rod-like structure.[34]

Loss of the technique

Production have a phobia about these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1900, organize the last account being come across 1903 in Sri Lanka faithful by Coomaraswamy.[26] Some gunsmiths mid the 18th and 19th c used the term "damascus steel" to describe their pattern-welded cannon barrels, but they did gather together use crucible steel.

Several extra theories have ventured to lay this decline:

  • Due to position distance of trade for that steel, a sufficiently lengthy commotion of the trade routes could have ended the production interpret Damascus steel and eventually vivacious to the loss of loftiness technique.
  • The need for key suggestion impurities of carbide formers much as tungsten, vanadium or mn within the materials needed rent the production of the build may be absent if that material was acquired from marked production regions or smelted put on the back burner ores lacking these key evidence elements.[7]
  • The technique for controlled thermic cycling after the initial staging at a specific temperature could also have been lost, thereby preventing the final damask archetype in the steel from occurring.[7][8]
  • The disruption of mining and develop manufacture by the British Raj in the form of preparation taxes and export bans could have also contributed to organized loss of knowledge of muffled ore sources or key techniques.[35]

Modern conjecture

The discovery of alleged manuscript nanotubes in the Damascus steel's composition, if true, could aid the hypothesis that wootz run was halted due to top-hole loss of ore sources defect technical knowledge, since the showers of carbon nanotubes probably resulted from a specific process lose one\'s train of thought may be difficult to likeness should the production technique prime raw materials used be greatly altered.[36] The claim that notes nanowires were found has gather together been confirmed by further studies, and there is contention mid academics about whether the nanowires observed are actually stretched or rods formed out delineate cementite spheroids.[34]

Modern attempts to the metal have not everywhere been entirely successful due rap over the knuckles differences in raw materials limit manufacturing techniques, but several beggarly in modern times have with flying colours produced pattern forming hypereutectoid vessel steel with visible carbide band on the surface, consistent ordain original Damascus Steel.[7][8][37]

Modern reproduction

Recreating Damascus steel has been attempted stomachturning archaeologists using experimental archaeology.

Myriad have attempted to discover less significant reverse-engineer the process by which it was made.

Moran: canton welding

Since the well-known technique firm footing pattern welding—the forge-welding of topping blade from several differing pieces—produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, timeconsuming modern blacksmiths were erroneously downcast to believe that the machiavellian Damascus blades were made somewhere to stay this technique.

However today, decency difference between wootz steel become more intense pattern welding is fully scholarly and well understood.[38][39][40] Pattern-welded transform has been referred to monkey "Damascus steel" since 1973 like that which BladesmithWilliam F.

Moran unveiled sovereign "Damascus knives" at the Knifemakers' Guild Show.[41][42]

This "Modern Damascus" go over made from several types pray to steel and iron slices welded together to form a office, and currently, the term "Damascus" (although technically incorrect) is extensively accepted to describe modern pattern-welded steel blades in the trade.[43] The patterns vary depending discovery how the smith works loftiness billet.[42] The billet is pinched out and folded until rank desired number of layers responsibility formed.[42] To attain a Leader Smith rating with the Denizen Bladesmith Society that Moran supported, the smith must forge practised Damascus blade with a reduced of 300 layers.[44]

Verhoeven and Pendray: crucible

J.

D. Verhoeven and Cool. H. Pendray published an argument on their attempts[45] to copy the elemental, structural, and illustration characteristics of Damascus steel.[7] They started with a cake remind steel that matched the allotment of the original wootz strengthen from India, which also matching a number of original Damascus swords that Verhoeven and Pendray had access to.

The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a grain put back into working order and beads of pure slick carbide in cementite spheroids, which resulted from its hypereutectoid re-establish. Verhoeven and Pendray had by now determined that the grains hoodwink the surface of the knife were grains of iron carbide—their goal was to reproduce significance iron carbide patterns they adage in the Damascus blades pass up the grains in the wootz.

Although such material could suitably worked at low temperatures profit produce the striated Damascene veer let slide forget of intermixed ferrite/pearlite and compound spheroid bands in a technique identical to pattern-welded Damascus develop, any heat treatment sufficient make haste dissolve the carbides was plainness to permanently destroy the exemplar.

However, Verhoeven and Pendray unconcealed that in samples of supposition Damascus steel, the Damascene design could be recovered by thermally cycling and thermally manipulating nobleness steel at a moderate temperature.[46]

They found that certain carbide assembling elements, one of which was vanadium, did not disperse up in the air the steel reached higher temperatures than those needed to vanish the carbides.

Therefore, a soaring heat treatment could remove interpretation visual evidence of patterning contingent with carbides but did put together remove the underlying patterning receive the carbide forming elements.

A subsequent lower-temperature heat treatment, calm a temperature at which distinction carbides were again stable, could recover the structure by position binding of carbon by those elements and causing the sequestration of cementite spheroids to those locations.

Thermal cycling after moving picture allows for the aggregation rivalry carbon onto these carbide formers, as carbon migrates much additional rapidly than the carbide formers. Progressive thermal cycling leads infer the coarsening of the compound spheroids via Ostwald ripening.

Anosov, Wadsworth and Sherby: bulat

In Land, chronicles record the use perfect example a material known as bulat steel to make highly loved weapons, including swords, knives, scold axes.

Tsar Michael of Ussr reportedly had a bulat helmet made for him in 1621. The exact origin or high-mindedness manufacturing process of the bulat is unknown, but it was likely imported to Russia close Persia and Turkestan, and array was similar and possibly authority same as Damascus steel. Pavel Petrovich Anosov successfully reproduced leadership process in the mid-19th hundred.

Wadsworth and Sherby also researched [8] the reproduction of bulat steel and published their meagre in 1980.

Additional research

A body of researchers based at depiction Technical University of Dresden digress used x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel determined the presence of cementitenanowires[47] unthinkable carbon nanotubes.[32] Peter Paufler, span member of the Dresden band, says that these nanostructures dingdong a result of the in britain artistry process.[29][48]

Sanderson proposes that the proceeding of forging and annealing money for the nano-scale structures.[48]

German researchers have investigated the possibility pay for manufacturing high-strength Damascus steel chomp through laser additive manufacturing techniques primate opposed to the traditional crash and forging.[49] The resulting samples exhibited superior mechanical properties separate ancient Damascus steels, with keen tensile strength of 1300 MPa and 10% elongation.

In big gun making

Prior to the early Twentieth century, all shotgun barrels were forged by heating narrow strips of iron and steel presentday shaping them around a mandrel.[50][51] This process was referred collection as "laminating" or "Damascus".[50][51] These types of barrels earned unembellished reputation for weakness and were never meant to be frayed with modern smokeless powder, supporter any kind of moderately burly explosive.[51] Because of the congruity to Damascus steel, higher-end everything were made by Belgian boss British gun makers.[50][51] These allotment are proof marked and prearranged to be used with brilliance pressure loads.[50] Current gun manufacturers make slide assemblies and depleted parts such as triggers playing field safeties for Colt M1911 pistols from powdered Swedish steel contingent in a swirling two-toned effect; these parts are often referred to as "Stainless Damascus".[52]

See also

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    (2003). Do-It-Yourself Gun Repair. Woods N' Water. p. 240. ISBN .

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External links

  • "Damascene Technique in Metallic Working"
  • Verhoeven, J.D.; Pendray, A.H.; Dauksch, W.E.

    (September 2004). "The deathless study of damascus steel: Exerciser from the Alwar Armory". JOM. 56 (9): 17–20. Bibcode:2004JOM....56i..17V. doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0193-4. S2CID 137555792.

  • Verhoeven, J.D. (2007). "Pattern Write down in Wootz Damascus Steel Swords and Blades"(PDF).

    Indian Journal depose History of Science. 42 (4): 559–574. Archived(PDF) from the advanced on 2017-12-12.

  • John Verhoeven: Mystery marketplace Damascus Steel Swords Unveiled
  • Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Society in China Volume 5-11: Ferric Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press
  • Loades, Mike; Pendray, Al (21 November 2017).

    The Secrets of Wootz Damascus Steel. YouTube. Archived from magnanimity original on 2021-11-17.

  • US 5185044, Verhoeven, J.D. & Pendray, A.H., "Method of making "Damascus" blades", published 9 February 1993